Prohibition of College Sports Essay

â€Å"On October 16, 1905, shocked by the level of violence in college football, President Roosevelt summoned the Harvard, Yale and Princeton presidents and the football coaches to the White House. † College sports have turned out to be a problem since over the last hundred years and today, although sports have been major entertainment events for students and money-spinner, there are also a lot of problems associated with such events. Several governing bodies regulate the college athletic events including the NCAA, NAIA and the NCJAA. Many of the college sports have become popular on the local, regional and the national scale and they turn out to occupy important places in broadcasting and newspaper coverage. The origin of American college sports dates make to more the 165 years ago. Harvard University was one of the first to get involved in major college sporting activities. During that period college sporting activities was just a pastime, and did not have the associated money, media coverage and the huge sponsoring. Today, American college sports events are facing several problems with online and offline gambling and betting, sponsoring from liquor companies and the swearing and violence that occur at such sporting events. The college sports events actually do not promote education, but makes the students take up wrong paths. Due to these reasons, many people suggest that college sports events should in fact be banned (Mendelson, 2008, Epstein, 2002, Associated Press, 2008, Kancher, 2000, The Associated Press, 2007). Body Legislatures are currently very much concerned about the increasing number of online and offline betting and gambling going on in the realm of college sports. The scale of the racket is so much so that people are shifting from the legal gambling hubs of Nevada to the online betting web sites, which offer much more profit. These illegal web sites would in fact corrupt college sports and cause the students to choose illegal pathways with the gambling companies. McCain came up with a bill in 2000 to ban college sports betting, but his proposal was turned down. However, one of McCain aide’s said â€Å"He’ll continue to look at good opportunities,† meaning that McCain would try another strategy to reduce gambling. Many of the illegal betting companies are picking up deals with the coaches and the sports officials of the colleges. Another huge concern is the use of lottery company advertisements in college sporting events. More than $ 385, 000 has been spent by a lottery company every year on sporting events. Experts feel that permitting lottery company advertisements may in fact cause students to pick up gambling as a habit (Epstein, 2002, & The Associated Press, 2007). Alcohol companies are sponsoring the American college sports events on a large scale. They are turning out to be huge moneymakers as alcohol and beer sells well at college sporting events. Besides, it also encourages fantasy sports events that had often disastrous outcomes at college. Earlier an effort launched by the NCAA committee to ban alcohol ads during sporting events turned out to be disastrous. Today, nothing can be done about the alcohol advertisements that come up during college sporting events. The NCAA has permitted advertisements of liquors that contain less than 6 % of alcohol in them for sporting events. Many of the college sports coaches and officials have urged the NCAA to gradually ban the alcohol advertisements over the next few years. Many of the alcohol advertisements permitted during college sporting events were irresponsible. George Hacker head of CSPI says â€Å"College officials say they want to deter underage and binge drinking, and stop the riots that disrupt campus communities and blot schools’ reputations,†, which can only be possible if the number of advertisements during sports events were reduced. Fantasy games on the other hand would create another league, often damaging the name and reputation of college sport stars and sports teams (CSPI, 2003, & Rivals, 2008, During college sports events, the scenes are turning out to be very ugly due to the occurrences of swearing, passing racist or sexist remarks, physical violence, etc. Fans often taunt opposite team fans and insult opposing team players. In the past, university campus officials have tried to ban the use of remarks and adjectives by the fans, but this has gone unheard. Today obscenity is very common during college sports events. Games are not played in the right spirit. In the past banning college teams that have notorious groups of supporters have also not worked. Hence, an immediate ban on college sporting events has been called for. Boston University Dean feels that sporting events should be held in the right spirit and says â€Å"But standing and shouting obscenities does not have a place. I don’t equate school spirit with the yelling of obscenities. † (Cramer, 2006 & Associated Press, 2007). Conclusion There have also been several other problems facing American college sports. The manner in which the players, officials and the coaches are being treated seem to be a problem. Students being put into sport teams complain of several inconsistencies. The GW Hatchet reports â€Å"The NCAA is investigating an incident involving Bobby Knight, the head coach of Indiana University who allegedly choked a player in practice and showed his feces to players during a halftime speech. † Incidents like these can be very traumatizing and can often lead to unpleasant experiences that should not at all turn up during a college sport event. The very idea of having college sports events is lost. Hence, a total ban on college sports events is called for to ensure that students can ensure full concentration on academics (Kancher, 2000).

Policing Practices and Operations Essay

Policing agencies are incredibly responsible to the communities, counties, states, and nation to protect against crime and provide service to citizens. With this tremendous responsibility comes inherent scrutiny. The practices and operations of police agencies are under constant surveillance by the public as well as other policing agencies. To promote functionality police organizations are departmentalized to enhance efficiency and improve communication. Relationships within these organizational structures exist. Partnerships are developed between the community and policing agencies to increase crime reduction and improve order maintenance. The organizational structure of policing agencies will be reviewed along with communication patterns both within and outside of the agency. Current trends and issues facing policing agencies and communities will be examined and an analysis of changed that could be implemented to improve the partnerships between policing agencies and communities wi ll be determined. Relationships Between Traditional Organizational Structures of Policing Agencies Municipal Law Enforcement Municipal law enforcement is most commonly represented as the local police. These police departments provide local protection to cities and towns; departments vary in size in accordance to population. The structure of municipal law enforcement is generally broken into two divisions: investigation and patrol. Under these departments is an umbrella of subdivisions. Investigations houses units specific to vice, homicide, and juvenile relations. Additional departments exist such as â€Å"community relations, internal affairs, training, and research and planning† (Pollock, 2012, p.93). Specialized teams have also been created in some departments servicing cases such as domestic violence, responding to the mentally ill, and various other issues. Departments of a smaller capacity carry more responsibility in handling multitudes of cases due to the lack of additional resources. Municipal agencies coordinate with state and federal agencies when crimes are not within their jurisdiction (Pollock, 2012). County law enforcement County law enforcement is publicly known as the sheriff department. The structure supports the county sheriff and the sheriff deputies. Sheriffs serve protection to the local police and assist in crime investigations in counties that do not have local law enforcement. Management of the county jail is generally the county sheriffs responsibility. Some jurisdictions assign jail responsibilities to deputies, but they generally do service patrol. Civil documents, warrants, and eviction notices are also served from the sheriff’s office. The position is attained by election but deputies are employed through procedures similar to the selection process of the municipal law enforcement agencies (Pollock, 2012). State Police Highway Patrol, State Patrol, and the Department of Public Safety are State law enforcement agencies. Hawaii is the only state without a state police force. The demand for law enforcement on roads passing through townships created these agencies. State law enforcement agencies are publicly known for enforcing traffic law violations and deal exclusively with state laws. This limited jurisdiction separates them from municipal and federal agencies. Statewide criminal investigations involving auto theft or drugs are within the state polices jurisdictions. Assistance to local detection and investigations are also services provided by the state police. This limited jurisdiction separates them from municipal and federal agencies (Pollock, 2012). Federal Agencies The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Secret Service, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), and Internal Revenue Service (IRS) are federal agencies. These agencies deal with the enforcement of federal laws implemented by Congress. Functions are primarily investigations, and a very limited amount of patrol work is implemented. The largest federal law enforcement agency is the Department of Homeland Security. The agency with the broadest jurisdiction is the FBI. An investigation of a violation of both federal and state laws is permissible by federal law enforcement agencies. The sale of controlled substances is the most common example of this (Pollock, 2012). Communication Patterns Within and Outside the Policing Agency Technology has greatly improved the efficiency of policecommunications within the agency. In-car computers and laptops allow officers to have quick access to vital information. Loc al and federal information on a suspect from data files nationwide can be retrieved within moments. Dispatch and assignments are available to officers through the in-car computer system eliminating the reliance upon two-way radios. Officers and vehicles are monitored through Global Positioning Devices (GPS) (Maguire, 2011). Police officer responsibilities also include communicating with the public. Officers are expected to be competent with problem-solving skills, mediation, and social interactions. Training and education in these areas is vital in earning the trust and confidence of the community. Functions such as community policing, which will be discussed later, rely heavily on the public as a resource for crime fighting. Positive interaction with the public is achieved by exhibiting solid problem solving skills, social adaptability, and admirable temperaments (Maguire, 2011). Current trends in the approach to the policing function Problem-Oriented Policing (POP) SARA is a problem-solving model associated with problem-oriented policing. â€Å"SARA stands for scanning, analysis, response, and assessment† (Pollock, 2012, p.102). This approach to fighting crime applies available resources such as crime reports to target crimes centralizing in specific areas. The information is analyzed in an attempt to explain the origin of the crime. Officers then respond with the proposed solution, which could mean increased patrol in specific areas, or direct enforcement. Measures are then assessed to determine success rates (Pollock, 2012). Community Policing Community policing is trending in the recent years. The idea is that the police would create a partnership with the community to aid in the reduction and prevention of crime. Community support can greatly benefit in the resolution of neighborhood problems. This style of policing is service-oriented encompassing â€Å"many different types of tactics and programs, all with the goal of officers and community members developing partnerships to solve some of the neighborhood’s problems† (Pollock, 2012, p.99). Additionally, community policing places an emphasis on the decentralizing of policing (Pollock, 2012). Order Maintenance and Zero Tolerance policing Order maintenance and zero tolerance-policing places focuses on eliminating public order crimes such as public drinking, noise violations, graffiti, public urination, and intrusive panhandling, in full force. The ideology is that the elimination of the smaller crimes will ultimately reduce the larger crimes. The targeting of minor offenses affects a broad spectrum of the community including the general law abiding citizens. The strict implementation of city ordinances violations such as property maintenance and parking violations can greatly improve the probability of accusations of biased enforcement directly affecting various cultural groups (Pollock, 2012). Existing Issues with the Partnership Between Law Enforcement and Community Law enforcement fights a constant uphill battle to achieve harmony between maintaining order in society and protecting the rights of individuals. Police must encompass the element of authority while remaining approachable and socially accessible. The mil itary structure that has developed within the police organization poses a threat to community relations and hampers efforts of community policing. Officers are trained to protect due-process constitutional rights. Aggressive officer behavior, and in some cases bearing inappropriate weaponry, creates the components of militarization. This contentious behavior fosters fear in society and serves as a daily reminder of government intervention (Maguire, 2011). Changes to Improve Partnerships Between Law Enforcement and Community Partnership between law enforcement and the community can be improved by consistently following protocol and procedures. Any time an officer fails or violates standard procedures or protocols trust within the community weakens. The machismo attitudes that can be fostered from the military style training and organizational structure can create soldiers instead of law enforcement officials. Agencies need to have harsh consequences for officers who directly violate standard procedures. The machismo attitude can cause an overlap of jurisdictional formalities. Officers cannot assume the role judge, jury, and prosecution. Partnerships are built on common interests and trust. The only practical way to eliminate bias and unnecessary infringement upon citizens from law enforcement is to create a more superior breed of officials. This can be achieved by creating enhanced psychological and practical testing methods. Agencies must strive to uphold the  service-based theme of community oriented policing. Inappropriate behavior and excessive use of force are shortcomings that should be immediately dispensed. Conclusion The organization structure of policing agencies is broad and complex. Levels of hierarchy have been established to implement a chain of command and create jurisdictional boundaries. Communication within agencies, between agencies, and the communities they serve are vital to the promotion of commonality of service and protection. Technology along with skill training aids in achieving this goal. Policing agencies have developed methods such as POP and COP to boost functionality and efficiency in crime reduction. The ever present issue facing policing agencies remains in achieving a balance between authority and service. References Maguire, M. (2011). Critical Issues in Crime and Justice: Thought, Policy, and Practice (1 ed). : Sage. Pollock, J. (2012). Crime and Justice in America An Introduction to Criminal Justice (5th ed.). : Elsevier.

Kant and the Categorical Imperative Essay

The possibility of the existence of right and wrong has been a subject of discussion among philosophers for centuries and many theories have been presented to answer the question of whether morals exist. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the great German philosopher is one who has contributed profoundly to the world of philosophy and especially in regards to his thought on the subject of morality. Kant disagreed with Hume that morality is objective and not subjective. Kant wanted to propose a pure moral philosophy, one of absolute necessity and independent of all human feelings, because if it not so, it will not be absolute and binding upon every person. The purpose of morality is to affect our behaviour and that it is reason that makes humans moral and not feelings or preferences. We shall explore some of the a priori foundations of morality paying special attention to Kant’s ‘categorical imperative’ and what exactly this was designed to solve in moral theory. To have moral worth, an act must be done in the name of one’s duty, the moral worth of this act is taken from the principle from which it’s determined, not from what it aims to accomplish and that duty is necessary when one is acting out of respect for the law. A shopkeeper giving the buyer the right amount of change because the law states one must not steal, this is an example of a legal action because rules are being followed but for the wrong reasons. A shopkeeper returning the correct amount of change because it belongs to the customer is an example of a moral action because the action is being done for the right reasons. Kant adopts the view of morality as an ‘unconditional ought’, as opposed to a ‘conditional ought’ By this he means that one should perform an act without considerations of the merits that that act may produce, in comparison with acting in order for something else to happen. This implies that acts that are moral are those t hat are done without being done for the sake of the merit or reward that they may bring to the person. Kant claimed that moral behaviour does not guarantee the attainment of happiness; rather that good will is crucial for actually deserving happiness. â€Å"Nothing in the world–indeed nothing even beyond the world–can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification  except a good will† (Kant 1964 p.27). By the ‘good will’ Kant means that a good will is not good because what it performs or what it effects but that it is simply good in itself. The good will is the will which acts out of respect for the moral law and from freedom, but actions such as these, if motivated by selfish or emotional factors, will then have no moral worth. There is a great deal of stress placed on the intention behind the act, consider giving money to charity for the sake of helping out, without any need for any ego gratification or such self-serving purposes, this is an instance of â€Å"good will†. Kant’s most well known contribution to ethical discussion is the categorical imperative. There are three key propositions that form the basis of Kant’s ethics. They are: act only on that maxim (principle) through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law, act in a way that you never treat humanity as a means to an end and that you act as if you were a lawmaker member of a kingdom of ends. These three principles form the categorical imperative. For Kant the source of moral justification is the categorical imperative. It presents a method to determine whether or not an act may be considered to be morally correct. An imperative is either categorical or hypothetical. Kant writes, â€Å"If now the action is good only as a means to something else, then the imperative is hypothetical; if it is conceived as good in itself and consequently as being necessarily the principle of a will which of itself conforms to reason, then it is categorical . . . .† (Kant 1989 p.31) As humans we all have subjective impulses – desires and inclinations that may contradict the dictates of reason. These desires, whether they are material objects or gratify us in a sexual or psychological way, may in fact contradict the dictates of reason. Therefore we experience the claim of reason as an imperative, a command to act in a particular way. Kant views a person to be most free when they can overcome their temptations and it is this freedom that helps us make sense of morality. The categorical imperative emphasises the means for completing an action and places little meaning on the end result of an action, whereas the hypothetical imperative places much emphasis on the end result of an action. It is an imperative because it dictates what we should do, disregarding our desires. As rational beings we are guided through life by  laws and principles, in the form of an imperative which simply orders us â€Å"you must do this† regardless of any desires which we may have. Hypothetical imperatives apply to us if we have a particular desire, â€Å"go to university if you want to become a philosopher†. An act becomes imperative when it ought to be applied to everyone, hence the basic statement of the categorical imperative being to act only on maxims that you could will to become universal laws of human nature (Kant). A categorical imperative would command you to do X inasmuch as X is  intrinsically right, that is, right in and of itself, aside from any other considerations–no â€Å"ifs,† no conditions, no strings attached . . . a categorical imperative is  unconditional (no â€Å"ifs†) and independent of any things, circumstances, goals, or desires.  It is for this reason that only a categorical imperative can be a universal and binding  law, that is, a moral law, valid for all rational beings at all times. (Miller 1984 p.462) Immorality then would be to make exceptions for ourselves by acting only on maxims that we cannot universalize out of our own will. It is those who act in such a way and then expect others to act different to our way, who are immoral. The categorical imperative acts as a formula for universal law; by stating the prerequisites that an act must have to be considered moral, it presents a comparison for people to be able to see if they are acting morally, this being to act only on principles that you could will to become universal laws by which all who wish to act morally must comply with. It determines whether any act is right or wrong, so to do the opposite would be contradictory and this would then be an act that is not morally correct. An example that Kant puts forward in â€Å"Good Will, Duty, and the Categorical Imperative,† (1989) to depict this is of a man who is in extreme despair and contemplating suicide. By taking his own life he would be universalizing the principle that in order to love himself he should end his life (by doing this he is trying to improve his life by ending the despair he is feeling). Killing himself would in fact do nothing to improve his life because he would have no life at all! So you see how these contradictory acts undermine those that may be classified as morally right. Although Kant’s categorical imperative has been widely read and accepted by some it has had criticism. Some philosophers have thought of it as absolutist, being too ‘black and white.’ But when thinking of humanity and society in which we reside, looking at morality according to the categorical imperative allows a standard rule for everyone to follow. If it was alright for some people to steal and not others this we could not call a moral and fair society. There needs to be a rule or comparison so that what acts are right and what are wrong may be differentiated from each other and the wrong acts then dealt with accordingly. Some have asked how only an action which one had no desire to do could ever have any moral worth. This to me does not seem to be what is trying to be expressed in Kantian ethics. It is not the desire per se that makes an act immoral, I think it seems that it is more the fact of this desire being the reason the act is conducted in the first place. If the act is done to fulfil a personal desire or attain that which one desires, then the act is immoral, but if the act is done for the good of the act in itself, for example donating money to an orphanage because one desires to help, then this is still what Kant would regard as a morally right act. Although Kantianism has had a profound effect on some people, producing many elaborations, translations and thought, for some it is not feasible once placed together as a whole. Kant had some very profound ideas but looking at society tody I would think he was definitely on the right thought pattern. Society and we as humans, with our impulses whether good or bad, need a  clarified ethics to follow to help us separate what may be considered right and wrong in a moral sense, and it must be fair and the same for everyone, this is what Kant’s categorical imperative has done by creating a universal law or ‘rule of thumb’ for morality. References: Kant, I. 1989 â€Å"Good Will, Duty, and the Categorical Imperative.† ed. Serafini, A. Ethics and Social Concern, the categorical imperative. New York: Paragon House Publishers Kant, I. 1964 Groundwork and the Metaphysics of Morals, ed. Herbert J. Paton, New York: HarperCollins. Miller, Ed. L. 1984 Questions that Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy, 3rd ed. Colorado: McGraw-Hill, Inc. http://sguthrie.net/kant.htm (accessed on 12/10/04)

A Study Of Using Cultura Project In Selected Universities In Saudi Essay

A Study Of Using Cultura Project In Selected Universities In Saudi Arabia And Australia - Essay Example With the progress of the Cultura methodology in the joint American and French educational institutions, there is an incredibly large potential for the Cultura project to be applied in other educational institutions wishing to be integrated as well. This system of integration can be used by other educational institutions separated by culture as an active classroom system where students are left with the task of learning something while teachers are on stand-by for monitoring purposes. It is with this progress that this paper is founded on. This paper revolves around the analysis of utilizing the Cultura method in joining two different cultures like Arabic and English to be applied with the same treatment. This undertaking will not only verify the effectiveness of Cultura methodology and generality of the findings of Furstenberg, Levet, English & Maillet (2001) but also contribute to the legacy of educational institutions towards cultural literacy. II. Statement of the Problem The study is aimed at determining the effectiveness of the Cultura Project in selected universities within Saudi Arabia and Australia. In addition, the study also aims to determine what would be the effect on cultural literacy and integration between Saudi and Australian schools when they are connected via the Cultura Project. The study would also focus on several facets of the socio-economic grid that are primary or secondary factors to the Cultura Project.

Kant's Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics Essay

Kant's Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics - Essay Example For an empiricist, a priori knowledge is impossible because this is beyond experience. However, Kant, an empiricist himself, shows how a priori knowledge is possible. By his definition, a priori which he also terms as analytic, is something that is known not before anything else but in relation to the subject of knowing. Given Kant’s example â€Å"all bodies are extended† where the concept of extension is always related with the concept of bodies is analytic. In contrast with this is the synthetic judgment (by definition of synthesis is adding) and is clearly illustrated in his example â€Å"all bodies have weight† where the concept of weight was observed and was thought of as being added to the concept of bodies. In other words, something known to be innate or built in with the subject of knowing is analytic while something known to be a description of the subject of knowing is synthetic. Synthetic knowledge is also categorized into those arising from experience and those arising from mathematics. As for those from experience, it is obvious that when I experience a cold soda drink, I put the concept of cold, the concept of soda and the concept that the soda can be taken in the liquid form, and together they form the concept of a cold soda drink. This is also similar with mathematics, putting the concept of the number 1 and another number 1, adding them produces the concept of number 2. Since synthetic a priori knowledge is possible, then metaphysics is also possible since this is how metaphysics is to be known. According to Kant, â€Å"space and time†¦ are therefore pure intuitions that lie a priori at the basis of the empirical † (Sect 10). The concept of space and time is different from our conception of cold soda drink or extended bodies where we experience them (see, feel, taste) because unlike bodies and soda drinks that are objects in themselves, time and space are not

Nuclear Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nuclear Energy - Essay Example This paper shall focus on the advantages of nuclear energy as an alternative to the forms of fuel that are used at present. This paper shall also draw attention to the disadvantages that nuclear energy presents. Risks to human safety and the economic side of nuclear energy shall be discussed as a part of this. This paper shall also seek to look at the possible solutions that may evolve or have already evolved in this area, which may facilitate a safe and clean use of this form of energy for daily needs. Nuclear energy as a form of energy is a relatively new form of energy and the first reactor was created only in the twentieth century. As a result of this, many of the problems that are a part of this technology are yet to be resolved. This however, does not mean that research in this field be completely stopped. Nuclear energy is a form of energy that is produced due to nuclear reactions. The process of fission is used to split the nuclei of uranium atoms that cause an incredible amo unt of energy to be released. The energy that is thus released is then harnessed and used for other purposes. The immense amount of energy that is released needs to be collected in a safe manner. If this is not done, the risk of an explosion looms large and it is such an uncontrolled reaction (during fusion) that is used to create bombs that have the capacity to cause great damage to humankind. The fact that the reaction, once started, can go on through a chain reaction, adds to the charm of nuclear energy as a form of energy. â€Å"Once a uranium nucleus is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split other uranium nuclei. This phenomenon is known as a chain reaction.† (Nuclear Energy). Several measures are required to keep such a reaction under control and this contributes to the high initial costs of nuclear energy. The history of nuclear energy, thus, is a short one. The first instance where a controlled nuclear reaction was achieved, was in 1942 – â€Å"the first controlled nuclear chain reaction with the first demonstration reactor—the Chicago Pile 1†. The person associated with this event was Dr. Enrico Fermi. In the same decade, in 1945, the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to the recognition of the harmful effects of nuclear energy. The first instance of the production of electricity using nuclear energy occurred in 1951. The following decades saw the rise of many nuclear power generators which provided electricity to many people all over the world. An important event in this timeline would be the accident at Three Mile Island in 1979 that showed the world that damage could be done even through civilian nuclear reactors when harm was not intended. No one, however, was injured and it was only till the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine that the extent of the damage that civilian nuclear power could inflict was realized. The Fukushima disaster in 2011 cemented the p lace of nuclear energy as an unsafe form of energy in the minds of many (Nuclear Technology Milestone). As far as the legal aspect of controlling something as explosive as nuclear power goes, there are various laws that seek to curb the manner in which nuclear energy is used around the world. Every country has its own laws to govern its

Micro Economic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Micro Economic - Assignment Example A shift in the budget line along the bundle A is shown in the figure. The shift in budget line is parallel that indicates the fact that with a decrease in price of good X, the consumers’ real income increases. Furthermore, this implies that the consumer can now afford more goods and services as compared to the previous condition. Therefore, the parallel shift of the budget line and income effect shifts the consumer to a higher utility level. The movement from A to point B that depicts the effect of fall in price of good X. In case of normal goods, the consumption increases with the rise in income. On the other hand, in case of inferior goods, consumption falls with the rise in income (Arnold 261-265). 2) The change in price represents change in consumption pattern. A consumer is in a better position when consumption is located on a higher indifference curve, which indicates to a consumer’s response to the change in price of goods with respect to its nature. To be noted in this context, price effect is positive in case of normal goods. As positive income change causing shift in the budget line refers to its movement to a higher utility curve, the upward movement indicates that the consumer can purchase larger quantity of goods with same amount (Arnold 261-265). The change in consumption pattern is depicted as a shift in the budget line to a higher position as shown the figure-2 below. 3) Income effect is primarily considered as the result of the change in income earned by an individual. The effect can be positive as well as negative with respect to the type of goods. In case of normal goods, the income effect is positive but for inferior goods, it is negative. With the increase in income earned, preference for inferior goods decreases among consumers and so, the consumers become more likely to purchase substitutes. It is in this context that the shift in consumer preferences gives more satisfaction to the consumers as can be observed with reference to

Lincoln electric Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Lincoln electric - Essay Example From developing the potential of employees, their production quality would increase, thus realize an increased customer confidence in their produce. The knowledgeable sales team could outwit that of the competitors, thus an increased sales level. From capitalizing on existing relationships with customers and distributors, increased sales and coverage of their produce would be realized, thus increased earnings levels (Sabo). Four principal functions of management at Lincoln Electric in establishing the culture, mission, vision, and company strategy. Planning was laid down in establishing these, causing change where necessary, for example streamlining to the production of welding products. In organizing, the company plans the work of the employees, and then leaves the execution of duties to them, rewarding any increase in performance. In leading, the company’s management has established close relationships with the workers, thus increased cooperation. In controlling, the company has established a strictly no-nonsense atmosphere, at every area within the company’s premises – including the gate area, to the parking lots, to the working areas. Lincoln’s approach to organizing and motivating their employees, as based on the ideas of early behaviorism: the company has capitalized on the basic behavioral traits of employees – of wanting to see their contribution recognized and rewarded – to motivate and encourage the productivity of their employees.

About a moral issue in society that I consider right or wrong and how Research Paper

About a moral issue in society that I consider right or wrong and how it should be changed - Research Paper Example Indeed, while the American cultural landscape has made great strides in terms of ethnic diversity and women’s rights, the affirmative action policy still remains. This essay considers the background of the affirmative action policy and the arguments for its existence, then presents an analysis that demonstrates how affirmative action is an unfair and outdated policy that must be repealed for the benefit and progression of the United States. The United States has a history of discrimination throughout its history. As a slave nation a large element of the country’s economic structure was initially founded on extreme oppression. Even with the abolition slavery following the Civil War, large regions of the country were slow to respond to the changing social climate. Discrimination itself is understood as, "the act of making a difference in treatment on a basis other than individual merit" (Groton 1). While one can trace progressive social policies to post-Civil War efforts to encourage integration, what can be termed the contemporary approach has been linked with the 20th century Civil Rights movement. During this 1960s progressive effort, the government recognized and acknowledged the reality of discrimination levied against minorities. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was ultimately created making it â€Å"unlawful for an employer to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin" (Jones 35). As a direct response to this tenant of the act, affirmative action was instituted as a "temporary way to promote greater representation of blacks in the work force" (Jones 35). While it was understood that from a strict technical standpoint requiring individuals to hire one individual over another was a form of discrimination itself, it was generally accepted that it was a temporary condition that would allow for a

Entrepreneurial characteristics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Entrepreneurial characteristics - Essay Example Risk taking Risk taking is defined as a factor thing or element which exposes a person to a certain danger or which has negative impact on the person. Risk taking in business entails venturing into an idea or activity that might have negative impact on entrepreneur yet the same idea can bring positive outcome to the entrepreneur. Successful entrepreneurs need to have the ability to take risks in order to gain maximum benefits in case the idea succeeds. In many condition, opportunities are full of uncertainties as there are no ways to confirm if the move will be beneficial or not. As a result, many entrepreneurs are unable to venture in such ideas an aspect that makes them lose the ability to succeed. This enables an entrepreneur with this characteristic to fully own the idea and reap its benefits without intense competition (Gerber, 2009). If the idea succeeds, other business people utilize the idea but the entrepreneur who invented it will have created customer trust and barriers fo r the competitors to make use of the idea. This helps him in succeeding in the markets through gaining the largest market share and creating loyalty of the target customers towards the idea or product. One of the entrepreneurs who had taken risks in venturing in business is Michelle Moan. Despite her age she took a risk of investing in making bras that were more comfortable. As a result of going against all odds, she became successful and established MJM international which is one of the leading businesses in the world. The success of Moan was as a result of risk taking in an area that looked unpromising for many entrepreneurs. In 2000 she was awarded a world business achiever award which is a prestigious award given to entrepreneurs who has shown outstanding performance and innovation. This puts a challenge to entrepreneurs to be innovative and create ideas out of a challenge that they might be experiencing or a challenge facing the society. For a successful entrepreneur, an idea d espite how challenging it looks must be analyzed to look at its potential. Response to change Response to change is the act of reacting as a result of a certain change that has occurred in the sector, government or country at large. The world has become dynamic with many changes being experienced each day. For an entrepreneur to be successful he must monitor these changes as they might create an opportunity. New government policies are some of the changes that might create an opportunity for an entrepreneur. When an opportunity unveils an entrepreneur must be quick to respond to it through investing. This provides the entrepreneur with the opportunity to retrieve maximum benefits from the opportunity (Gerber, 2009). Response to change in case of an opportunity is determined by the flexibility of an entrepreneur. A flexible entrepreneur is one who is ready to shift from one way of doing things to another in order to fit in the new procedures that might be of great benefit. The best s trategy for an entrepreneur to become flexible is through setting aside capital that could be used to invest in a new opportunity. Such an act creates a difference between successful entrepreneurs and those who are not successful. In an example, changes in technological levels in the world created an opportunity for Steve Jobs to start Apple Inc which deal with various electronics such as iPod, iTunes, Mac laptops, desktop etc. His reaction was first despite the risks that faced investing in a sector that recorded major failures from previous

Societies and cultures Essay Example for Free

Societies and cultures Essay Societies and cultures in olden times used to live in isolation as means of transport were very slow. Men either travelled from one place to another on foot or animals like horses and camels were used. Cultural exchange used to take place when the invaders overran a country or traders came. The process of Globalization has been initiated by faster means of travel sophisticated technological advancement in communication like media and the internet boom. It has made information available to an individual at the click of a button . There is lot of foreign investment which entails creation of job opportunities. As a result economic prosperity and ideas of the developed nations are being incorporated in the societies of these countries. a kind of cultural exchange is taking place as trade and commerce is flourishing. Multinational companies are bringing western ideas to the developing nations. The term globalization was almost a nonentity before1990 ((Lewellen, 2002, p. 7) It is catch phrase of the contemporary society. According to Stanley Barrett â€Å"Human society is in the process of being transformed to a degree possibly not seen since the Industrial Revolution. The process can be summed up by the term globalization. † (Stanley Barrett 1999:258). The result of these interactions is asocial change in different cultures. Family is a basic unit of society in any culture. It is an institution which stands for cohesion solidarity, social order and continuity. The challenges faced by this building block of society is very important as A contrasting study of the families of the developed country like America and a developing country like India is going to elucidate the changes that are being brought about by globalization. The Family unit in U. S has undergone a lot of transformation some of the indicators can be the number of children living with both the parents in 1963 was 91% and it declined to 73% in 1997. (Waite Nielsen, 2001, p. 25) The formation of family revolves traditionally around marriage . The age at which the first marriage is taking place has steadily increased . In 1950s the young women married at the age of 20 but it has increased to 28 yrs as women are more and more getting career oriented. Late marriages are also responsible for decrease in fertility rate. The population decline has many factors but it is one of the major reasons of decline. Single person household are accounted for 20% homes in case of males and 12% in case of females in United States in 1970. The striking similarity between both the countries is that they single family is by and large headed by women . There are other factors which are responsible for the decline of the family in America. It is very interesting that though the age at which first marriages are taking place has increased to an average of 28 years in case of females but the age at first incidence of premarital sex has declined. It has become and accepted behavior by the society . it is no more considered an abnormal behavior. United States is among the leading countries as far as pregnancies out of wedlock are concerned. India is as far as premarital sex is concerned quite conservatives . The exact figures of Premarital sexual encounter is largely undocumented as there is a stigma attached to it. Although it can be quite reliably said that a kind of sexual liberalism is in the making . The acceptance and the prevalence of Valentines day is indicator of the acceptance of these ideas Till the till the 1990 s it was an enigma but now every town and city is reverberating to these ideas . It would be wrong to say that promiscuity was not an acceptable social practice . Especially the Hindu culture is full of the examples of the sexual liberalism. In fact it is the reason why the western concept of cohabitation and sexual freedom gained so much popularity. Various forms of family are there in United States like the extended family, the single-parent family, the â€Å"blended family† (where previously married spouses with children remarry), and the â€Å"part-time-parent† family (where a parent is only with the rest of the family for weekends). Changes in the structure of the family is severely effect the health and well being of children The divorce rate is very high in American society . More than half of the marriages end up getting divorced and it has been studied that children of such households have more likelihood of cohabiting and premarital sex which can result in pregnancies (Le Bourdais et al1998) Children in single parents family have lower academic excellence both at high school and university level. Marriage is a precursor to the formation of the family. It is very sacred institution in which there is no escape. The Indian society is primarily a patriarchal society and male members are the bread winners and the bearer of authority. Women’s role at the best can seen as complementary she is considered as an ardhangini or the other half. The economic independence and the transportation of the Ideas of equality coupled with the emphasis on the material wellbeing have resulted in the acceptance of the women working outside the precincts of their homes. There is consistent increase in the incidence of the family of nuclear family and the reasons of this rise is urbanization, industrialization, globalization and decrease in the fertility rates since 1961 (Niranjan, Nair Roy, 2005) The southern India which has lower fertility rates have seen a shrinking the family size . The size of he family dependent on the economic status as upper class have lesser tendency to form a nuclear family . it is independent of the caste and religion. Class is a predominant aspect of most of the nation states. The major distinction between the haves and the have not is of relevance to most societies . The class system in the Indian society is very rigid as those who are born in a particular class can not move up the hierarchy come what they may do. The Varna system is a social system was based on skills and qualification . Asocial change was seen as a result of the modernization and interaction with the west in the form of the colonial occupation. Since the middle class is the most representative of the society of any country . Therefore it has been taken as indicator of the change . The organization or the structure of the family remains the same irrespective of the class distinction. The social class in the American society is strictly on the basis of the economic standing of the individuals . It is broad spectrum of society that can range from the Janitor to the manager. We are contrasting the effect of globalization on a middle class family of the developing country like India and the developed country like America. The middle class in India comprises of a mosaic of various culture and religion. Class does play an important role in the character and the speed of the changes that are occurring as a result of the globalization. In the present context class in the Indian society is being defined more by the economic status than by the social order of the olden times which owed its existence to the Vanaashramdharama. It is the economic compulsions which is resulting in the middle class families in India to move away from the traditional model of family to amore western concept There are certain similarities how these changes have been perceived in both the American and the Indian middle class like the acceptance of the role of women in the mainstream has been gradual. There are differences between the middle class of the two countries . India is by far more conservative as far as the role of women in society is concerned . Household duties is still the pejorative of the women . She is doubly burdened as she has keep the hearth as well as earn to enhance the material wellbeing of her family members THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCE Globalization is seen by many as an economic phenomenon as there is an influx of capital in the national economy. There is an immense interaction of the local economy with the international market. The economic changes that are taking place as a result of globalization are having an impact on the family structure of the developing countries like India . We are seeing a shift from the joint family system to the nuclear family structure. Many factors contributed to the disintegration of the joint family. Multinational companies have captured the national economies and hence a lot of job opportunities have been created. Women are increasingly becoming economically independent . This is a step towards an empowerment of women but it doesn’t indicate that all sorts of gender bias that have traditionally been prevalent in the Indian family structure has been eradicated. Family structure provided a kind of social security net for the most vulnerable members of our society . The old and the infirm and kids enjoyed the security and safety of their homes. The multinational companies have entered the Indian market and are eroding the value system of the traditional societies. There is a prevalence of dual earners in the middle class as a result the moms are not performing their traditional roles of caregivers which were unpaid labor. However the increase in the income of the middle class family has lead to increase in the living standards of the average middle class family. These trends is result of globalization as the in the west working women is the norm of society. The economic independence of women was precursor to a higher divorce rate in the contemporary Indian society. Many women are opting out of abusive marriages as they are economically independent. Despite this fact the divorce rate in India is among the lowest. It stands at 1. 1%where as in America it is 54. 8% according to Wikipedia. The Indian society is in transition and divorce and remarriages are slowly gaining acceptability. It is difficult to get the exact figures of divorce rates because the divorces are filed at the local courts. The women seeking information on how to obtain a divorce through telephone helpline of The Delhi Commission for Women has increased from 20% to 2000% Traditionally marriages in the Indian society could not be annulled it was a sacrosanct relationship and there was no way of getting out of it. Liu is quoted by Science Daily said â€Å"Not only the United States, but also other countries, including developing countries such as China and places with strict religious policies regarding divorce, are having more divorced households, The family structure historically had a survival and welfare function . The member of a family like the women and the children were economically dependent on the male earning member for the fulfillment of their needs The Indian family system was primarily patriarchal . despite the fact that Indian family has various strains because of the different cultures and religion practiced One thing that I common is the fact that it is primarily a male centered unit . The call centre culture is a recent phenomena and the impact of it on the Indian society is by and large undocumented . The new found economic independence of the youth is disturbing the hierarchical structure of the family system. The parental authority is continuously diminishing as the offspring are becoming economically independent. There is shift from parental authority to Co-operation from obedience to exploration. It is a commonplace experience in the Family structure of The American society that the unmarried children who are above 18 years of age to go and live outside the family home . The new found economic independence can be seen as a precipitator of the same trend. The traditional role of women as caregivers has seen a paradigm shift as they are more and more employed and a shift towards smaller families have created a situation in which caring for the elderly and sick is becoming difficult . there is lot of geographic mobility and the lower fertility rates are contributing to the unavailability of persons that can act as care givers. There is an absence of social security net for the elderly consequently they are the worse hit There are no alternatives for them the old homes are either in bad shape or they are not available. In grave contrast to their American counterparts they are rich The old are a target of the advertizing agencies as they have a lot of spending power. The elderly population which can be used as a source of education and the influence of social class on families. Are there similarities in families of same social class in different culture? Whose influence is more culture or economics EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILIES Globalization has brought the modern concept of individual freedom at the doorstep of the developing nations . The demand for the excellence of the individual creates a tension which not only felt by him but by the entire family . It is affecting the parent offspring relationship. The emphasis on material success has disturbed the proviso institution and it has created a problem for the aged and the week and the children who have lost a caregiver . Some of the positive aspect of Globalization is women emancipation and lowering of the fertility rate and poverty . These are problems that the developing nations are facing Globalization has decreased if not completely eradicated this problem. REFERENCES Hertz and Nancy L. Marshall UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley  · Los Angeles  · London year 2001 Lewellen, 2002, p. 7The anthropology of globalization. SAHER MAHMOOD and SOMINI SENGUPTA As Mores Evolve, India’s Divorced Seek Second Chance. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from: http://www. nytimes. com/2008/02/14/world/asia/14remarry. html? _r=2ref=worldoref=sloginoref=slogin Waite Nielsen, 2001, p. 25. Working Families The Transformation of the American Home edited Rosanna

Landslide and Debris Flow Essay Example for Free

Landslide and Debris Flow Essay A. A landslide is when a mass of soil, rocks and other debris moves down a slope, powered by the force of gravity. Sometimes, this movement is so sudden and rapid that it causes devastating loss of life and structural damage. (http://www.health24.com/medical/Condition_centres/777-792-1461-2097,34702.asp) B. A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released. (http://www.americansnetworkingtosurvive.org/Landslide.html) C. Landslides occur in all U.S. states and territories. In a landslide, masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. Landslides may be small or large, slow or rapid. They are activated by storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, fires, and human modification of land. Landslide problems can be caused by land mismanagement, particularly in mountain, canyon, and coastal regions. Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems. (http://www.wilderness-survival.net/natural-hazards/landslides-mudslides/) D. Landslides are a serious geologic hazard that occurs in almost all 50 states. Every year in the United States, they cause significant damages and 25 to 50 deaths. Globally, landslides cause billions of dollars in damages and thousands of deaths and injuries each year. The term â€Å"landslide† describes many types of downhill earth movements ranging from rapidly moving catastrophic rock avalanches and debris flows in mountainous regions to more slowly moving earth slides. Some landslides move slowly and cause damage gradually, whereas others move so rapidly that they can destroy property and take lives suddenly and unexpectedly. Gravity is generally the force driving landslide movement. Landslides cause property damage, injury, and death and adversely affect a variety of resources. For example, water supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal systems, forests, dams, and roadways can be affected for years after a slide event. Landslides generally happen where they have occurred in the past, and in identifiable hazard locations. Areas that are prone to landslides include existing old landslides, the bases of steep slopes, the bases of drainage channels, and developed hillsides where leach-field septic systems are used. (http://www.survivalkitsonline.com/landslidepreparedness.html) E. Landslides occur when masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. (http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/landslides.asp) Risks or Dangers from landslides A. The immediate risk to human life from a landslide or mudslide is being caught in its path: sand, and thick mud especially, can cause suffocation, and people can be trapped or crushed by boulders or other debris, or by buildings collapsing under the weight of the flow. (http://www.health24.com/medical/Condition_centres/777-792-1461-2097,34702.asp) B. Landslides can also disrupt power lines and water and sewerage pipes, potentially leading to electric shock and contaminated drinking-water. Roads and other transportation arteries may be blocked by debris, raising the risk for accidents and hampering access by rescue and medical services. (http://www.health24.com/medical/Condition_centres/777-792-1461-2097,34702.asp) C. Landslides, mudflows and debris avalanches frequently accompany other natural hazards such as floods and earthquakes. The October 17, 1989 earthquake resulted in many areas of unstable land throughout the County which will be further impacted by winter storm conditions . (http://sccounty01.co.santa-cruz.ca.us/oes/landslide%20and%20mudflow.htm) D. Areas are at Risk: 1. Areas where wildfires or human modification of the land have destroyed vegetation; 2. Areas where landslides have occurred before; 3. Steep slopes and areas at the bottom of slopes or canyons; 4. Slopes that have been altered for construction of buildings and roads; 5. Channels along a stream or river; and 6. Areas where surface runoff is directed. (http://www.americansnetworkingtosurvive.org/Landslide.html) Tips on Surviving landslides A. How to avoid them:1. Be in tune with your surroundings. If you’re travelling to a new area, swot up on it and find out about the potential risks (landslides or otherwise). Check out the topography: are there dodgy-looking slopes (steep or eroded) in the area? And especially: what is the weather doing? Intense rainstorms can be dangerous, especially if there’s been a preceding period of wet weather. 2. If you decide not to leave the area, then at least stay awake if you think there’s a chance of a landslide: many such disasters have occurred while their victims were asleep. Keep a portable, battery-powered radio with you to stay in touch with any safety announcements. Move up to a second story if possible, which might help to keep you above the level of the debris. 3. Listen for unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as tree branches breaking, boulders knocking, or a faint rumbling that increases in volume. 4. A trickle of mud or soil may precede the main landslide. If you are near a stream or channel, beware of a sudden increase or decrease in water flow, or a change from clear to muddy water: this could mean landslide activity upstream. If you’re driving, remember that road embankments are prone to landslides. Also watch out for fallen rocks and mud. 5. Any of the above signs mean you may have only a few minutes (or even seconds) to get out of the path of the landslide. 6. Also, beware if the following occur for the first time: a. Cracks in walls or the ground. b. Doors or windows stick. c. Outside walls or stairs lean away from the main building. d. Underground utility lines break. e. The ground bulges at the base of a slope. f. Water breaks through the ground surface. g. Fences, walls, utility poles or trees tilt. (http://www.health24.com/medical/Condition_centres/777-792-1461-2097,34702.asp) B. Preparedness 1. Reinforce the foundation and walls of your home. Identify vulnerable areas of your home and add temporary shoring, bracing or shear wall supports where necessary. 2. Install flexible rather than stiff pipe fitting to avoid gas or water leaks in the event of a landslide or mudflow. 3. Mudflow is covered by flood insurance policies from the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). You can buy flood insurance even if you do not live in the flood plain. Keep your insurance coverage up to date. 4. Stockpile emergency building supplies such as ropes, buckets, large plastic bags, plywood, sandbags, plastic sheeting and lumber. 5. Maintain emergency supplies such as water, foods that require little cooking, a first aid kit, portable radio and flashlights. 6. In high risk areas, construct channels to direct the mudflows around your home or buildings. 7. If you are inside during a landslide and the building is not in peril of sliding down a hill, stay inside and get under a desk, table or other sturdy furniture. 8. If you are outside and cannot get into a sturdy building while rocks and debris tumble toward you, curl into a tight ball and protect your head. 9. Usually, you can survive a mudflow or debris avalanche only by avoiding it. If you are in a valley, get out as soon as possible once you hear rumbling from upstream or feel the ground tremble. These are signs that a mudflow may be coming your way. 10. If caught in a mudflow, try grabbing onto a large rock, tree or anything being carried along. (http://sccounty01.co.santa-cruz.ca.us/oes/landslide%20and%20mudflow.htm) What you should do? A. Before the landslide 1. Contact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the people best able to assess the potential danger. 2. Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of the potential hazard. Advising them of a threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate. 3. Leave. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection. Take your pets with you when you leave, provided you can do so without endangering yourself. (http://www.survivalkitsonline.com/landslidepreparedness.html) 4. Assume that steep slopes and areas burned by wildfires are vulnerable to landslides and debris flows. 5. Learn whether landslides or debris flows have occurred previously in your area by contacting local authorities, a county geologist or the county planning department, state geological surveys or departments of natural resources, or university departments of geology. 6. Contact local authorities about emergency and evacuation plans. 7. Develop emergency and evacuation plans for your family and business. 8. Develop an emergency communication plan in case family members are separated. 9. If you live in an area vulnerable to landslides, consider leaving it. (http://emergency.cdc.gov/disasters/landslides.asp) 10. Contact your local emergency management office or American Red Cross chapter for information on local landslide and debris flow hazards. 11. Get a ground assessment of your property. 12. County or state geological experts, local planning department or departments of natural resources may have specific information on areas vulnerable to landslides. Consult an appropriate professional expert for advice on corrective measures you can take. 13. Minimize home hazards. 14. Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls. 15. In mudflow areas, build channels or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings. 16. Remember: If you build walls to divert debris flows and the flow lands on a neighbors property, you may be liable for damages. Explore a neighborhood or special district project. 17. Install flexible pipe fittings to avoid gas or water leaks. Flexible fittings are more resistant to breakage. 18. Familiarize yourself with your surrounding area. 19. Small changes in your local landscape could alert you to the potential of greater future threat. 20. Observe the patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes and especially the places where runoff water converge 21. Watch for any sign of land movement, such as small slides, flows, or progressively leaning trees, on the hillsides near your home. 22. Be particularly observant of your surrounding area before and during intense storms that could heighten the possibility of landslide or debris flow from heavy rains. Many debris flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. 23. Talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies from the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). 24. Learn to recognize landslide warning signs.

Importance Of Scale In Ecology Biology Essay

Importance Of Scale In Ecology Biology Essay The concept of scale in ecology is seen as increasingly important in our understanding of the functioning of ecological communities and the interaction of individual species with the environment. This has been recognised globally by the awarding of the 2011 Crafoord Prize to Ilka Hanski for his work on the concept of metapopulations (www.crafoordprize.se). The importance of scale in ecology was only seriously recognised in the late 80s and 90s by ecologists (Krebs 1985; Wiens 1989; Levin 1992; Bissonette 1997). Krebs (1985) stated: the importance of scale in ecology is a focal issue for the 1980s as we attempt to gain a finer understanding of how ecological systems operate in the real world. This is further highlighted by the fact that Karieva and Anderson (cited in Wiens 1989 and Bissonette 1997) showed that about half of all studies conducted between January 1980 and January 1987 were done on plots a metre or less in diameter. The two major types of scale are spatial scale and temporal scale. Spatial scale can be considered in terms of grain size and extent. The grain size is the resolution of the sampling. It describes the size of an individual sample. A common example for grain size in ecology would be a quadrat. The extent describes the area (or volume) within which all the samples are taken. Temporal scale can be thought of as the frequency of sampling. The importance of scale when studying migrations was shown by Hanski and his colleagues (Hanski 1999, Hanski et al. 1994). Previous work has suggested that there are two types of butterfly populations; open and closed. This is due to the mobility of different species of butterflies with some migrating long distances like the monarch butterfly and others only a few kilometres. It was observed that the majority of species of butterflies in closed populations remained in their natal habitat patch. However, Hanski states that nobody had conducted extensive mark-recapture work simultaneously in many habitat patches (populations) to really establish the extent of migration. In other words he suggested that by looking at the metapopulation instead of population level, a better picture of the butterfly migration would be had (Hanski 1999). When this was done it was found that some populations were not as closed as they seemed (Hanski 1999, Hanski et al. 1994). Insect herbivores life-history strategies According to Bale (2002) there are six different types of life-history strategies found in insect herbivores: Methuselah. Growth and development is dependent on climatic conditions. The life cycle can last several years. For example, the periodic cicadas have a 13 or 17-year life cycle (Williams and Simon 1995). Stop go. Growth and development is controlled by environmental cues. It starts and stops in synchrony with seasonal changes. This can be seen in the heather psyllid Strophingia ericae (Miles et al. 1998). Grab it. There is close synchrony of life cycle with host plant phenology because the duration of the availability of the plant as a food resource is limited to an interval during the growing season. There is usually only a single generation per year. For example, in the spruce bud moth (Zieraphera canadensis) larvae surviviorship decreases significantly for those hatched 4-5 days after bud burst (Quiring, 1992). Keep trying. The host plant allows for continuous development during a limited growing period. Two or more insect generation may occur per season depending on temperature and host plant condition. For example, the southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis can have up to five generations per season depenting on temperature (Rudinsky 1962). Hop about. The insect changes host plant depending on suitability. An example of this strategy can be seen in the moth Hyles lineata (Cates 1980). Never give up. In non-seasonal environments, continuous development occurs on a single host with several generations per year. In seasonal conditions, insects are adapted to survive unfavourable periods in any one of all stages. A seasonal synchronization mechanism may be included in the life cycle (e.g diapause and photoperiodic inhibition of development). An example of this strategy in seasonal conditions can be seen in the corn borer Pyrausta nubilalis (Babcock, cited in Masaki 1961) and in non-seasonal environments in the beetle Chelobasis perplexa (Strong and Wang 1977). When studying any aspects linked with growth and development in insect herbivores, it is therefore important to know what type of life-history strategy the study species displays when choosing the temporal scale of the study. A species with a never give up strategy can be sampled continuously throughout the year but this is not the best sampling process for a species with a methuselah strategy because growth and development is dependent on climatic conditions and, to study its whole life cycle, sampling would have to take place over several years. Temporal and spatial influence on community ecology Krebs (1985) recognised five traditional characteristics of communities that have been measured or studied; species diversity, growth form (e.g. trees, shrubs, herbs, and mosses) and structure, dominance amongst species, relative abundance of species, and trophic structure. Temporal changes to these characteristics are known as successions and lead to a stable climax community A climax is the final or stable community in a successional series. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical and biotic environment (Krebs 1985). Krebs describes the floral development of abandoned farmland in Oklahoma as example of plant succession. Booth (1941) analysed the different plant stages and their duration in the succession. His findings are tabled below. Table 1. Plant succession stage and its duration. (After Krebs 1985) Stage Duration of Stage Weeds 2 years Annual Grass (Aristida oligantha) 9-13 years Bunchgrass (Andropogon scoparius) 25+ years Tall grass prairie Climax vegetation The replacement of weeds by annual grass can be explained to be due to weed species producing chemical inhibitors that affected themselves but not the annual grass. A. oligantha can survive in a low nitrogen environment and nitrogen levels are low after crop abandonment. As the soil improves, the bunchgrass replaces the annual grass and in turn is replaced by the prairie grass. Temporal changes that occur in a stable community are known as cyclic changes. An example of this type of change can be seen in the population of lemmings in Greenland (Gilg et al. 2003). The collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) in Greenland is preyed upon by four species of predators; the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), the stoat (Mustela ermine), the snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca), and the long tailed skua (Stercorarius longicaudus). Gilg et al. were able to show that there is a 4-year cycle in lemming and stoat numbers. They were also able to predict this 4-year periodicity in lemming dynamics by constructing a predator-prey model. This and the Gilg et al. observations of the 4-year cycle were graphed and can be seen in Fig. 1 below. Fig. 1. The top graph is a visual demonstration of the lemming (black squares) and the stoat (grey circles) 4-year cycle based on field observations. The bottom graph demonstrates the cycle predicted by a model. (Gilg et al. 2003) They also highlight that there is a similar cycle in the arctic fox in Greenland. Using data from trapping records, they demonstrated that arctic fox numbers between 1935 and 1960 peaked at intervals of 4, 5, 4, 4, and 4 years. Like the changes in stoat numbers, they suggest that this cycle is due to changes in lemming densities. Spatial influence on community ecology is especially obvious when considering the theory of island biogeography put forward by MacArthur and Wilson (1967). This theory states that on an island, the number of species is proportional to the size of the island and its distance from the source population (usually the mainland). This theory does not work solely on island populations. It has been adapted to work on fragmented forests, lakes and ponds, caves, and mountaintops (Harris 1984, Lassen 1975, Culver et al. 1973, Riebesell 1982). Communities can have different species diversity depending on their latitude. Simpson (1964) recognised a north-south gradient in the abundance of mammals in North America. He identified a clear but irregular gradient with a minimum number of 13 species in a quadrat (240 km2) in one of the nothernmost areas (latitude 70Â °) and a maximum number of 163 species in one of the southernmost areas (latitude 10Â °). This gradient can be explained due to the warm temperatures found in the tropics which favour the diversification of the biota (Krebs 1985, Jacobsen et al. 1997). Krebs (1985) states that the increase in species diversity towards the tropics could be due to an increase in spatial heterogeneity. This influence has been recognised in forest ecosystems by Burnett et al. (1996) and in bird species diversity by Roth (1976). Another factor to this gradient might be that towards the equator diversity in species is greater because the area is greater and species richness is scale depe ndent; it increases with area (Willig et al. 2003). How communities are structured/evolve A community is formed from processes which occur at very large spatial and temporal scales such as speciation, vicariance, and dispersal (Holt 1993). Two types of community structures are the physical structure and the biological structure (Krebs 1985). The physical structure refers to the structures within which species distribute themselves, for example, trees and shrubs. Krebs (1985) recognised three components to the physical structure of communities; growth forms, vertical stratification and seasonality which will be discussed in the next section. The growth form refers to the architecture of a plant in terms of its form, method of branching and arrangement of its shoot system, and underground system if possible (Gimingham 1951). They can be classified into six major growth forms: Trees Lianas Shrubs Epiphytes Herbs Thallophytes All communities have a vertical structure. This stratification is associated with a decrease in light (Krebs 1985). Biological structure involves species composition and abundance, temporal changes in communities, and relationships between species in a community (Krebs 1985). Examples of temporal changes and relationships between species in communities were given in the previous section. All these characteristics of the community structure are interlinked. This is best shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2. The relationships between factors that influence the structure of a community. (After Krebs 1985) The evolution of a community is not dependant on individual biological components but of the pattern of interaction expressed in the community structure (Olson 1966). Although, it could be argued that changes in a species can change an interaction in the community structure (Brooks and McLennan 2002). Changes in one of the factors in Fig. 2. can contribute to the evolution of a community. The evolution of a community can also be thought of in terms of succession as a community changes until it reaches a stable climax community. The extent to which a community can evolve is dependent on species density. A community which has a number of species that is below equilibrium numbers has a greater chance of evolving than a community in equilibrium (Brooks and McLennan 2002). Factors influencing the structure and longevity of communities Seasonality is a major component of the physical structure of communities. The structure of all communities is affected by seasons, and seasonal events are important to the functioning of communities (Krebs 1985, Wiens 1974). It can also be considered as affecting the biological structure since the physical structure of a community affects its biological structure (Krebs 1985, Wiens 1974). Wiens (1974) states that the highly seasonal distribution of precipitation and production found in grassland habitats can influence the species abundance or the size of the resident population. He also describes how climatic irregularities can limit the number of species in a community, especially in large unfragmented grasslands where there are few places for opportunistic species to reside. He argues that in grassland which covers a small area, populations of species can take refuge in a different habitat type until conditions are favourable for them. Also, natural hazards (e.g. fires and floods) and anthropogenic influences can affect community structure (Zimmerman 1992, Dale et al. 2001). The longevity of a community is dependent on its resilience. Resilience indicates how fast a community can return to an equilibrium state after a perturbation (Pimm 1984). If a community is resilient it does not mean that it is unstable. In fact, Holling (1973) states that the spruce budworm forest community is highly unstable and because of this it is very resilient. Measurements of resilience are specific to a type of perturbation. A community can be resilient to one type of perturbation (e.g. low temperatures) but not at all resilient to another (e.g. increased nutrients) (Krebs 1985). Two factors that can affect the resilience of a community are patchiness and dispersal (Krebs 1985, Holling 1973). Some communities are resilient because they reside in a patchy environment. When a perturbation occurs in one patch, species can disperse to another patch until conditions are favourable again (Krebs 1985, Wiens 1974). Species composition and biodiversity can also affect resilience (All ison 2004, Griffiths et al. 2000). According to Pfisterer and Schmid (2002) greater number of species can express a greater range of responses to environmental perturbations. Differences in immigration/emigration between guilds, species, and kingdoms Different organisms have different success in migrating. For example, Walsh and Kay (1995) showed that when eucalyptus trees were introduced to New Zealand from the Australia, woodborers, sapsuckers and defoliators species immigrated to New Zealand to colonise the eucalyptus number of species being roughly equally distributed amongst the three guilds. At around the same time, pine trees from the North America were introduced to New Zealand. Half the amount of woodborer species that colinised the eucalyptus emigrated to colonise the pines while only a quarter of the numbers of sapsuckers that colinised the eucalyptus colonised the pines and no defoliators managed to establish in the pines. The succes of the insects, considered to be pests to trees, is due to the distance of their source population from New Zealand (Fig. 3). The insect that colonised the eucalyptus trees came from Australia and had no problem in immigrating. However, the insect pests to the pines originate from North A merica and would have had to travel a long distance to reach introduced pines. The defoliators could not emmigrate and synchronise their life history with the introduced pines. The woodborers are well-adapted to travelling long distances because their life history is isolated from their environment. Sapsuckers are not as well adapted to travelling long distances but only one female need to arrive at the destination to colonise because of their parthenogenesis capability. Fig. 3. An adaptation of the MacArthur and Wilson (1967) model for the prediction of the number of pests that can colonise a host. (Walsh and Kay, 1995) Insects have more success in establishing themselves in a new environment if they migrate on an east-west axis as opposed to a north-south (Kay, 2005). This is because there is more of a chance of phenological synchrony of pests and host in east-west dispersal because season reversal is encountered when travelling north-south. How does this assist our understanding of ecology on a local and global scale? When choosing scale one must be aware of the characteristics of the processes that might influence your study (if they are not the subject of the study themselves) and the characteristic of organisms in the study. For example, if we are studying the potential threat of an invasive herbivore insect to a community, it is not enough to study the community structure to see if it can accommodate the insect but the distance of the source population must be known as well and also the life-history strategy of the insect. Although spatial and temporal scales are usually positively correlated to achieve high predictability in a study (Wiens, 1989) this is not the case when looking at the evolution of a community. When studying succesion, a later sequence can survive longer than the investigator (Connel and Slayter, 1977). This means that you could be looking at the succesion of a local community in a small area using years of data. Hanski (1999) makes an argument of not restricting to a local scale when studying a local population. By looking at a more global scale you can make an inference on a local population. It is important to note that even when a community is in a stable condition, temporal changes can still occur and lead to population dynamics. These cyclic changes could affect data and therefore the temporal scale of a study done on species in a stable climax community would have to take this into consideration. For example, if one were looking at the stoat population in Greenland between 1996 and 1999 (Fig. 1.) one would assume that there is a pattern with number of individuals gently rising, unaware of the cyclic changes in their population. Since when we look at evolution we look at changes against time it is safe to say that time is the main process influencing the evolution of a community. This is visually demonstrated in Fig. 2. where time is on top of the diagram showing the factors that influence community structure. However, there is a spatial influence on the evolution of a community as well. Spatial heterogeneity, as previously discussed, can dictate the species diversity. Also, the species density (amount of species per area) affects the ability of a community to change. The theory of island biogeography can be applied on a local and global scale. The Culver et al. (1973) study on cave-limited species in the Greenbrier valley in West Virginia can be considered to be done on a local scale compared to the MacArthur and Wilson (1967) study on amphibians and reptiles in the West Indies using data collected by Preston (1962). On a global scale, we see that species diversity increases on a gradient from one of the poles to the equator. This can be attributed to the change climate, spatial heterogeneity, or simply because of the greater amount of space available towards the equator. Seasonality can have an ecological effect on global as well as local scale. On a local scale, it can effect species abundance and population density in a community. Seasonl irregularities can affect species diversities in spatially homogenous communities. On a global scale, seasonality can lead a community to be species specific. Some herbivorous insect cannot colonise certain areas because they are unable to synchonise their life cycle with the potential host plant phenology due to change in seasons. A communitys longevity is not dependent on how stable it is but on its resilience. A communitys resilience is influenced by how patchy is the environment it occupies. If its environment is heterogenous, species can disperse between habitat types to avoid perturbations. Biodiversity is also important for resilience and , as already mentioned, is affected by spatial and temporal forces. Success of migration in species is dependent on the scale of the migration. Walsh and Kay (1994) showed that woodborers, sapsuckers and defoliators had much more success in immigrating to New Zealand from Australia than from North America. There was also variation in successes to the emigration of the three guilds from North America due to the different influences that seasonality has on the guilds. In brief, the main conclusion of this review is that a study should not be restricted to one scale. When possible, different observations should be done on different scale. For example, when studying species diversity we know that it can be affected by spatial heterogeneity (local scale) and latitude (global scale). We have already established that different processes work on different scale but it is important to note that some processes work on multiple scales.

Relationships of Waverly Jong and Jing-mei Woo in The Joy Luck Club Ess

The Relationships of Waverly Jong and Jing-mei Woo in The Joy Luck Club  Ã‚        Ã‚   Amy Tan in her novel The Joy Luck Club presents us with daughters who are striving to place themselves beyond the control of strong mothers and become individuals. Adrienne Rich in her book Of Woman Born calls this splitting from the mother, "matraphobia" (Rich, 235), and later notes: "The mother stands for the victim in ourselves, the unfree woman, the martyr. Our personalities seem dangerously to blur and overlap with our mothers; and, in a desperate attempt to know where mother ends and daughter begins we perform radical surgery." (Rich, 236) Tan shows us two characters in her novel who consciously split from their mother when they feel unable to claim their true selves. These two characters are Waverly Jong and Jing-mei Woo.    Waverly's break from her mother comes when she perceives her mother's pride in her ability to play chess being something that increases her mother's own self worth. Waverly tells us: "I knew it was a mistake to say anything more, but I heard my voice speaking. 'Wh...

Racism in To Kill A Mocking Bird :: essays research papers

Bullying And Discrimination Differences in the social status are observed considerably large in the society of Maycomb. Scout and Jem are two little children who are growing up, observing all the complicated incidents and trying to understand them. In the Maycomb County, incidents get more and more complicated as the dilemma of racism becomes bigger and bigger and as wise Atticus starts loosing faith in the good in people. Maycomb’s society is like a hierarchy. On the top there is Atticus Finch, he always tries to believe the good people. The ignorant farmers Cunningham’s are below the towns’ people, which are below Finches. The Ewell’s even lower on the society and the black society comes after them despite all of their honourable and respectable conditions. The place where black society stands on the social hierarchy enables Bob Ewell to cover his obscure presence by putting Tom Robinson down. Jem and Scout are growing in this society and Atticus keeps on trying to teach them to look at situations from another persons’ perspective to understand it better. This is like a moral lesson to the reader from Harper Lee. It is something that applies to everyone. The huge difference in social status is very destructive for the community and for Scout. For example, Scout doesn’t understand why Aunt Alexander doesn’t let her be friends with young Cunningham. Harp er Lee uses children’s naivety and simplicity to show the complexities of the adult world and prejudice in human interaction. Atticus grows his children to be fair and equal. He is a very wise man, who in many situations knows how to act and what to do. In a racist society like Maycomb, he is brave enough to defend a black man. This trial is very important because it gives an insight of the society people and how they react to Tom’s death. At the end of this trial Jem looses his trust in rationality of the people and sees the irrational evil in people through this ugly incident. When the ladies of the county get together in Finches house, we get to know more about the women of Maycomb. They talk about how their black maids complain and that Jesus never complained so no education will make a â€Å"Christian† out of them. They don’t consider blacks as Christians. After all they believe in the same God. Women discuss and talk but they never really talk about anything that matters. Racism in To Kill A Mocking Bird :: essays research papers Bullying And Discrimination Differences in the social status are observed considerably large in the society of Maycomb. Scout and Jem are two little children who are growing up, observing all the complicated incidents and trying to understand them. In the Maycomb County, incidents get more and more complicated as the dilemma of racism becomes bigger and bigger and as wise Atticus starts loosing faith in the good in people. Maycomb’s society is like a hierarchy. On the top there is Atticus Finch, he always tries to believe the good people. The ignorant farmers Cunningham’s are below the towns’ people, which are below Finches. The Ewell’s even lower on the society and the black society comes after them despite all of their honourable and respectable conditions. The place where black society stands on the social hierarchy enables Bob Ewell to cover his obscure presence by putting Tom Robinson down. Jem and Scout are growing in this society and Atticus keeps on trying to teach them to look at situations from another persons’ perspective to understand it better. This is like a moral lesson to the reader from Harper Lee. It is something that applies to everyone. The huge difference in social status is very destructive for the community and for Scout. For example, Scout doesn’t understand why Aunt Alexander doesn’t let her be friends with young Cunningham. Harp er Lee uses children’s naivety and simplicity to show the complexities of the adult world and prejudice in human interaction. Atticus grows his children to be fair and equal. He is a very wise man, who in many situations knows how to act and what to do. In a racist society like Maycomb, he is brave enough to defend a black man. This trial is very important because it gives an insight of the society people and how they react to Tom’s death. At the end of this trial Jem looses his trust in rationality of the people and sees the irrational evil in people through this ugly incident. When the ladies of the county get together in Finches house, we get to know more about the women of Maycomb. They talk about how their black maids complain and that Jesus never complained so no education will make a â€Å"Christian† out of them. They don’t consider blacks as Christians. After all they believe in the same God. Women discuss and talk but they never really talk about anything that matters.

Causes Of The Great Depression Essay -- essays research papers

Causes of the Great Depression Many people think that the Great Depression was caused solely by the stock market crash. Anybody who tells you this probably didn’t pass U.S. History in high school. The fact is, the Great Depression was caused many different factors. Four of which were overproduction, uneven distribution of wealth, protective tariffs, and the four â€Å"sick industries† of the 1920’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After World War I, new technological improvements helped factories to produce higher quantities of goods using smaller amounts of employees. Fewer workers meant less money being redistributed to the consumers to purchase products. America didn’t have a necessity for this higher quantity of goods with less people receiving paychecks. Thusly, the age-old system of supply and demand began to wither because there were too many products with too few people who could afford them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1922, the average weekly earning for most people was about 22 dollars. Because of this uneven distribution of income, families couldn’t afford to buy most products. Businesses suffered additionally because they had trouble selling goods. Most profits that could have been put into employee’s salaries went to shareholders or back to the business itself. If the workers had higher wages, they would be able to purchase goods and thus help the economy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1930, congress passed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act, which created the highe...

Hinduism Essay

It is quite evident that the Hinduism community is not a united belief religion. This is because; the religious community is comprised of numerous religious approaches; all marked with different views of animist, antiquity, and devotion to divine worship as well as marriage practices. However, Hinduism has many commonalities making it the Hindu. Such include and not limited to having common faith in yogic practices (Knott, 1998). According to available information, yoga is defined as a combination of both physical and mental practices aimed at meditation or simply soul searching. This involves numerous practices such as restraining of life forces, abstraction from external forces that affect our sense organ, living a non violent life, engaging in maximized concentration on a given objective, and devoted meditation on a given subject (Knott, 1998). Another common practice that makes the Hinduism community is the notion of Karma. Based on available literature, Karma simply means the cycle of cause and effects of things in our deeds. By this, Hinduisms engage to ensure that they act with consideration of morality in their day to day activities. In addition, they do belief that human beings are free to choice good or evil but should be ready to suffer the associated consequences. The third binding belief in the Hinduism community is the Hindus marriage concept. According to the Hindu school, marriage is a sacrament rather than a contract between couples. For all Hindus, marriage entails a life commitment between a man and a woman whose aim is to search God’s will, meet their physical desires, and expand their personal possessions. Hinduism is predominant in the south Asian countries particularly in India. The reason why the religion is cultural and societal influence in its region of influence in India is that its origin is in the Indus River. Hinduism has evidently influenced the lives of members in its origin. This can be quite evident marriage, wealth, and yoga practices in the region. True from the letter, Indians are quite industrious in the process of acquiring wealth. Due to this reason, citizens of this nation have emerged as among the best investors in the world. As an emphasis to this assertion is the claim by available reports that Indians dominate the IT industries. This cultural value is no doubt a consequence of the common belief by Hinduism that marriage entails searching for creation of wealth. On yoga practices, the Indian community has been quite pivotal in the process of influencing sole searching practices across the globe. Just to be appreciated is the fact that meditation does not only influence our living behavior but above all serves the ultimate purpose of shaping our lives (Narayanan, 2010). This is because; it encompasses physical and mental practices in the process of seeking comfort of life. In the societal level, Hinduism has been encouraged social responsibility among members of the Indian community. Owing to their strong believe in this religion, divorce and domestic violence is quite low in India compared to other communities in the world (Narayanan, 2010). In addition, Indians like helping relatives to promote their sustainable social and economic well-being. This can be best explained by the fact that the religion states that people are free to choice good or evil but should be ready to suffer the associated consequences. It is worth noting that doing good will is one practice that one is assured of not consequential repercussions. The process of realizing liberation from earthly existence by the Hindus is based on the concept of samsara. This religious community belief in heaven and hell; with heaven being a place where great and noble people go after performing good things on earth. According to the dictates of samsara, commitment to good or evil while on earth determines where we go after life. The concept has it that a human being is continuously born and reborn on earth. Such can be in form of human being, god or any other being. For Hinduism, living a life of ego-consciousness and desire is instrumental in determining your life after death. Through the process of searching for having a conscious living, one attains liberation. To achieve this, this religion believes in both yoga and karma. In yoga (commonly called soul searching process), an individual has the opportunity to realize their true self through a process of meditation. On the other hand, karma entails doing good deeds as the only way one can attain liberation from earthly life (Narayanan, 2010). According to the religion, engaging in karma yoga gives the individual a guarantee to selfless actions, an element that brings understanding of the need of unity to all. Therefore, the desire for liberation from earthly existence by Hindus is encompassed in the yoga and karma provisions.